Social Studies Archives - Teacher Curator

The Consular Diptych of Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius

November 4, 2025

by admin Archaeology Art Byzantine Art Byzantine Ivories Byzantium Early Christian Art Education Museums Social Studies Student Activities Worksheets

**Consul Basilio with personification of Rome and chariot race,** 541 – 541, Plaque of an Ivory Consular Diptych, 34.5×12.9 cm, National Museum of Bargello, Florence, Italy – Photo Credit: Amalia Spiliakou, April 2025
**Ivory Angel fragment of a diptych valve,** 6th Century, Ivory, Museum of Ancient Art in the Castello Sforzesco, Milan, Italy
https://www.alamy.com/ivory-angel-from-bottega-romana-fragment-of-a-diptych-valve-6th-century-museum-of-ancient-art-in-the-castello-sforzesco-sforza-castle-in-milan-italy-image223703517.html

The Bargello panel of The Consular Diptych of Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius (consul in 541 AD) offers a vivid glimpse into the ceremonial splendor and political symbolism of late antiquity. Carved in fine ivory, the plaque depicts the Consul Basilio standing frontally beside the personification of Rome, who crowns him with a laurel wreath, a timeless emblem of civic and military virtue. Below unfolds a chariot race, a rare and dynamic motif symbolizing the public games that marked the consul’s inauguration. The consul holds both the scipio topped with a cross and the mappa circensis, the cloth used to signal the start of the races, fusing Christian and traditional Roman imagery in a moment of political theater.

Once hinged to a now-separated companion leaf, the Milan panel (Avori 10, Castello Sforzesco), the Bargello relief would have formed one side of a luxurious diptych presented to commemorate Basilius’s consulship. The Milan fragment, showing Victory presenting the consul’s portrait within a clipeus, completes the scene’s message of divine favor and public virtue. Together, these ivories capture the final flowering of the consular tradition, bridging Roman civic ideals and Byzantine court aesthetics, and reflecting a world where art served both as devotion and as declaration of power.

Consular diptychs were luxurious paired ivory panels created in the late Roman and early Byzantine periods to commemorate the inauguration of a consul, one of the highest offices in the empire. Traditionally carved on the inside to hold wax for writing, these diptychs evolved by the 4th and 5th centuries into richly decorated ceremonial gifts rather than practical objects. Newly appointed consuls commissioned them to celebrate their accession and distributed them to friends, allies, and dignitaries as tokens of prestige and gratitude. The front surfaces were elaborately carved with scenes of the consul’s investiture, imperial imagery, or allegorical figures such as Victory or Rome, while inscriptions proclaimed the consul’s name and titles. Their iconography—often showing the consul presiding over games, dispensing largesse, or associated with divine favor—served to reaffirm the continuity of Roman civic traditions even as imperial power shifted eastward to Constantinople.

Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius, consul in 541 CE, was a distinguished member of the ancient and influential Anicii family, one of the last great senatorial lineages of Rome. His career unfolded during a turbulent period in the Gothic War and the final years of the Western Roman aristocracy. Before attaining the consulship, Basilius held prominent administrative posts, including comes domesticorum (commander of the imperial household guard) and patricius, titles that reflected both his rank and his proximity to the imperial court. Appointed consul by Emperor Justinian I, he was the last man to hold the title in the Western tradition. After his term, the consulship ceased to exist as an independent civic office and became an imperial prerogative. His consular games, commemorated by the magnificent ivory diptych now divided between Florence and Milan, symbolized both the enduring prestige of Rome’s senatorial elite and the transformation of Roman political culture under Byzantine rule. Basilius’s life thus marks a poignant historical threshold: he stood at the end of Rome’s ancient civic offices and the dawn of a new, imperial order dominated by Constantinople.

The Consular Diptych of Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius, divided today between the Bargello Museum in Florence and the Museo delle Arti Decorative in Milan, stands as one of the most compelling survivals of sixth-century ivory art. Created in 541 CE to commemorate Basilius’s consulship—the last in the Western Roman tradition—the two panels once formed a hinged pair, uniting political ceremony, imperial iconography, and refined craftsmanship. The Bargello panel represents the consul’s public and civic identity, while the Milan plaque embodies the divine and honorific aspects of his role, creating a complete visual narrative of authority and virtue.

The Bargello panel presents Basilius standing frontally in full consular regalia beside the personification of Rome, who crowns him with a laurel wreath, a symbol of victory and civic honor. In his hands, the consul holds the scipio topped with a cross and the mappa circensis, signaling the opening of the chariot races carved below in vivid relief, where teams of four-horse chariots turn around the spina of the circus. This combination of Christian and traditional Roman imagery reflects the fusion of old civic ritual with new imperial faith. The Milan plaque, by contrast, depicts a winged Victory seated on a globe, her feet resting on an eagle’s outstretched wings as she presents a clipeus containing Basilius’s portrait. Around it runs the inscription BONO REI PVBLICAE ET ITERVM (For the good of the Republic, and again), proclaiming the consul’s service to the state. Together, these compositions balance earthly power and celestial sanction, merging public ceremony with divine endorsement.

Aesthetically, the two panels reveal both unity and distinction. The Bargello panel is dense and narrative, crowded with human figures and architectural motifs that emphasize movement and civic spectacle. The Milan panel, in contrast, is more restrained and idealized, its composition centered, symmetrical, and imbued with spiritual calm. The Milanese Victory, delicately modeled and classically poised, recalls earlier Roman traditions of divine personification, while the Bargello figures are more rigid, their proportions elongated, their gestures formalized in the emerging Byzantine style. The difference in tone, public versus celestial, active versus contemplative, suggests that the two leaves were designed as complementary expressions of the same ideology: the earthly authority of the consul validated by divine and imperial favor.

Viewed together, the two ivories encapsulate the final synthesis of Roman civic art and Byzantine symbolism. They celebrate the consulship not merely as an office but as a sacred performance of continuity between past and present, Rome and Constantinople, man and empire. Their divided survival, one in Florence, one in Milan, mirrors the historical fragmentation of the world that produced them, yet their shared message endures: that power, piety, and artistic excellence could still converge in the twilight of antiquity. As such, the diptych of Basilius stands not only as a testament to individual glory but as a poignant farewell to the visual language of Roman public life.

For a Student Activity, please… Check HERE!

Bibliography: Representing consulship: on the conception and meanings of the consular diptychs, by Cecilia Olovsdotter, OpAthRom 4, 2011, 99-124 https://www.academia.edu/11849854/Representing_consulship_on_the_conception_and_meanings_of_the_consular_diptychs_OpAthRom_4_2011_99_124?utm_source=chatgpt.com and https://catalogo.beniculturali.it/detail/HistoricOrArtisticProperty/0900645430

Martial Reportage and Archaeological Revelation

October 25, 2025

by admin 20th century Art Art Social Studies Student Activities Worksheets

**Photographer: Ariel Lowe Varges,** American, 1890–1972
**Discovery of the ancient marble memorial plaque praising the virtues of Manius Salarius Sabinus for his benefactions** by the 8th Battalion, Royal Scots Fusiliers whilst digging trenches on part of the Birdcage Line defences between the villages of Aivatli and Laina (ancient Lete),April 1916, (in the Collection of the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki), Photo date: 1916– Photo Credit: Imperial War Museums, UK https://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/205297459
**The ancient marble memorial plaque praising the virtues of Manius Salarius Sabinus for his benefactions** (in the Collection of the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki), Photo date: 1916– Photo Credit: Imperial War Museums, UK https://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/205297460
**Photographer: Ariel Lowe Varges,** American, 1890–1972
**Lieutenant Commander Ernest Gardiner R.N.V.R. working on the ancient marble memorial plaque praising the virtues of Manius Salarius Sabinus for his benefactions,** Photo date: 1916 – Photo Credit: Imperial War Museums, UK https://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/205265524

In the context of the WWI Salonika campaign (1915–1918), Ariel Lowe Varges’s lens captured more than just Allied operations, it also glimpsed the buried threads of the classical past emerging within the conflict zone. This dual resonance is movingly preserved in three photographs now held by the Imperial War Museums: one records the 1916 discovery of an ancient marble memorial plaque praising the virtues of Manius Salarius Sabinus for his benefactions, another depicts the plaque itself, and a third shows Lieutenant Commander Ernest Gardiner, R.N.V.R., carefully examining its inscription. Together, these images form a unique bridge between Martial Reportage and Archaeological Revelation, testifying to how the upheaval of war could uncover, preserve, and even reframe fragments of history long concealed beneath the surface.

The photographs gain further significance when placed against the wider backdrop of the British Salonica Force’s archaeological work. Under the supervision of Gardiner, a professor at the University of London, systematic excavations were carried out at Karabournaki in Thessaloniki and at Tsaousitsa in Kilkis, revealing tombs and ancient artifacts. Initially stored in the White Tower, where one floor was converted into a “Museum of the British Force”, these finds were later transferred in 1918 to the army headquarters housed in the Papafio Orphanage. In 1919, the collection was shipped to the British Museum, where much of it remains today, though part of it was retained in Thessaloniki and is now held by the Archaeological Museum. Through Varges’s camera, the entanglement of military occupation, archaeological discovery, and cultural heritage are given rare visual form.

Among the finds made during this extraordinary phase of wartime archaeology was the marble memorial plaque of Manius Salarius Sabinus (Μάνιος Σαλάριος Σαβεῖνος), unearthed by the Royal Scottish Fusiliers near Liti in April 1916 while digging defensive trenches of the Birdcage Line. The inscription, dated to AD 121/122 under Hadrian, honors Sabinus, a wealthy landowner of Lete, possibly also a citizen of Thessaloniki, for his repeated generosity during times of famine, when he sold grain to both the local populace and the emperor’s troops at exceptionally low prices. The text itself preserves this civic gratitude in clear terms:

ἡ πόλις Μάνιον Σαλάριον Σαβεῖνον τὸν γυμνασίαρχον καὶ εὐεργέτην
ἐν [σι]-τηνδείαις πλειστάκις παραπεπρακότα τὰ σιτία
τοῖς στρατοῖς τοῦ κυρίου Καίσαρος ἐπ’ εὐτελεστάτοις τιμαῖς …

“The city [honors] Manius Salarius Sabinus, gymnasiarch and benefactor, who many times in times of grain-shortage sold grain to the armies of our lord Caesar at the very lowest prices …”

Praised as gymnasiarch and benefactor, he emerges from the inscription as a civic leader whose actions linked local welfare with imperial military needs. Initially stored in the improvised wartime museum of the White Tower, the plaque was fortunately retained in Greece after the dispersal of the British Salonica Force collection. Today it resides in the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki, illustrating how wartime excavations brought to light evidence of past shortages and civic benefaction, resonant with the conditions of Macedonia in the First World War.

The temporary exhibition “**ARCHAEOLOGY BEHIND BATTLE LINES. In Thessaloniki during the turbulent years 1912-1922″** took place during the celebrations for the centenary of the city’s liberation and was incorporated into the A.M.Th. actions under the “Thessaloniki, Crossroads of cultures” programme of the Ministry of Culture, Thessaloniki Archaeological Museum, 24 November 2012 – 30 June 2014 https://www.amth.gr/en/exhibitions/temporary/archaeology-behind-battle-lines-thessaloniki-during-turbulent-years-1912-1922?utm_source=chatgpt.com

Ariel Lowe Varges (1890–1972) was a pioneering American photographer and newsreel cameraman whose career spanned some of the most turbulent events of the early 20th century. Born in Chicago on June 11, 1890, he began as a photographer for the Chicago Examiner before joining William Randolph Hearst’s newspaper empire in New York around 1911. Among the first American still photographers to embrace motion picture cameras, Varges made his mark in 1914 when he filmed the Mexican War and soon after became the first foreign cameraman permitted to cover the war in Serbia, thanks to a connection with Sir Thomas Lipton.

During World War I, Varges served as an official cinematographer with the British Army, documenting campaigns in Salonika, the Middle East, and Mesopotamia. His vivid depictions of frontline conditions were instrumental in shaping how the war was seen by the public. For his contributions, he was made an honorary Member of the Order of the British Empire. After the war, he continued his globe-spanning career, becoming the first foreign cameraman to film Leon Trotsky and later covering conflicts in China and Ethiopia for Hearst newsreels. His adventurous assignments even included aerial cinematography over the pyramids with the Cairo–Baghdad Squadron.

By the 1950s, Varges had transitioned into a leadership role as head of the photographic laboratory for Hearst’s News of the Day newsreel program, retiring in 1952. He died on December 27, 1972, in Norwich, Connecticut, and was buried in Preston Cemetery. Remembered as a trailblazer in war cinematography and newsreel journalism, Varges helped shape modern visual reporting by bringing audiences closer than ever before to world events.

For a Student Activity, inspired by Ariel Lowe Varges’s photographs of the ancient marble memorial plaque praising the virtues of Manius Salarius Sabinus for his benefactions, please… check HERE!

Bibliography: chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://ikee.lib.auth.gr/record/286234/files/Xydopoulos%20Euergetes%20AWE.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com and https://shootingthegreatwar.blogspot.com/search?q=Ariel+Varges&fbclid=IwY2xjawL7xP1leHRuA2FlbQIxMABicmlkETEyS2dKa2lvV0dTbGFITmc4AR7QWbi9QnOpTIhSeUIPyCnh1r83OdC4VnOGI-z6re858Ge4s2B6A71idjyk1g_aem_z-xs-iAmzHAZK5lxukZcjw

Tomb of Hunting and Fishing

October 18, 2025

by admin Archaeology Art Education Etruscan Art Social Studies Student Activities Uncategorized Worksheets

**Etruscan Tomb of Hunting and Fishing,** 520-510 BC,Necropoli dei Monterozzi, near Tarquinia, Lazio, Italy Photo Credit: Amalia Spiliakou, April 2025

The Etruscans, a powerful and enigmatic civilization of central Italy, played a vital role in shaping the cultural foundations later adopted by the Romans. Renowned for their elaborate funerary customs, they believed in providing for the dead in ways that reflected both status and the joys of earthly life, leading to the creation of richly decorated tombs that serve as lasting testaments to their artistry and worldview. The Necropoli dei Monterozzi near Tarquinia exemplifies this tradition, as one of the most important burial grounds of the ancient Mediterranean, where hundreds of painted chambers offer a vivid glimpse into Etruscan society. Among these, the Tomb of Hunting and Fishing, dating to around 520–510 BC, stands out for its lively frescoes that celebrate nature, leisure, and the afterlife, making it a masterpiece of Etruscan funerary art.

**The Necropoli of Monterozzi** – Photo Credit: Xanthippi Glavopoulou

The Necropoli of Monterozzi holds immense archaeological significance as it preserves the largest collection of painted Etruscan tombs, offering unparalleled insight into the beliefs, daily life, and artistic achievements of this ancient culture. Discovered in the early nineteenth century, the site quickly became a focal point for antiquarian interest, with early excavations often driven more by the desire to uncover treasures than by scientific methods. Over time, however, more systematic archaeological approaches have revealed the necropolis’ historical depth, documenting over 6,000 tombs ranging from simple chamber burials to elaborately decorated family vaults. The frescoes, in particular, have transformed scholarly understanding of Etruscan society, as they preserve vibrant scenes of banquets, rituals, and natural landscapes that rarely survive in other contexts, making Monterozzi a cornerstone in the study of pre-Roman Italy.

The Tomb of Hunting and Fishing, discovered in 1873 during a period of intensive investigation at the Necropoli of Monterozzi, represents one of the most significant finds of late nineteenth-century Etruscan archaeology. Documentation from the time, however, provides only fragmentary information regarding the circumstances of its excavation, the personnel involved, and the precise condition of the monument upon opening. Despite these gaps, contemporary commentators consistently remarked upon the striking preservation of the painted decoration, noting with particular interest the unprecedented imagery of fishermen, hunters, and divers that expanded the known repertoire of Etruscan funerary art. Although anecdotal testimony concerning local responses or early interventions is scarce, the tomb rapidly entered scholarly discourse and has since been recognized as an essential source for understanding the interplay of ritual, daily life, and conceptions of the afterlife in Etruscan culture.

Crucial to the legacy of the Tomb of Hunting and Fishing are the watercolours produced by the artist Gregorio Mariani soon after its discovery. His meticulous reproductions, later published in chromolithograph form, captured the vibrant hues and delicate details of the frescoes at a moment when they were far fresher than today. These images not only provided scholars with reliable records of motifs that have since deteriorated, but also played a vital role in popularizing the tomb’s significance within the wider field of Etruscan studies. Original Mariani watercolours are preserved in the archives of the German Archaeological Institute in Rome, while facsimile reproductions can be found in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek in Copenhagen. In this way, Mariani’s work serves as both an artistic achievement and a scientific tool, bridging the gap between nineteenth-century discovery and modern scholarship.

The Tomb of Hunting and Fishing is a two-chambered burial space whose walls are adorned with some of the most dynamic and evocative frescoes in Etruscan art. The imagery vividly depicts scenes of everyday leisure and subsistence: Dionysian figures dancing in a sacred grove, hunters chasing game, fishermen casting nets, youths diving into clear waters, and birds in flight above lush landscapes.

**Gregorio Mariani, Tomba della Caccia e Pesca,** Facsimile olio su tela, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek HIN 0091-3 -© Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenaghen; foto Ole Haupt https://journals.openedition.org/mefra/8455
**Etruscan Tomb of Hunting and Fishing,** 520-510 BC,Necropoli dei Monterozzi, near Tarquinia, Lazio, Italy – Photo Credit: Amalia Spiliakou, April 2025

In the antechamber, the frescoes depict nearly naked figures engaged in what appears to be a Dionysian ritual dance, set within a grove adorned with ribbons, wreaths, mirrors, and cistae. Reclining satyrs holding rhytoi occupy the gable of the entry wall, underscoring the influence of the cult of Dionysus on Etruscan religion and funerary practices. On the back wall, a hunting scene unfolds, with hunters and dogs returning with their quarry through a lush, almost tropical landscape filled with vibrant vegetation. This juxtaposition of ritual and daily activity illustrates both spiritual and worldly dimensions, highlighting the Etruscans’ belief in the continuation of life’s pleasures beyond death.

In the main burial chamber, the frescoes shift focus from activity to celebration, illustrating scenes that suggest both ritual and leisure. Youths are depicted diving and swimming in carefully delineated waters, while birds and aquatic creatures populate the surrounding environment, emphasizing a harmonious interaction between humans and nature. The figures are arranged in continuous sequences that convey narrative flow, as if time itself is unfolding across the walls. Here, the painter employs brighter pigments and more elaborate detailing, particularly in the depiction of musculature, drapery, and facial expressions, giving the scenes a remarkable sense of immediacy and life. Together, the two chambers combine to create a vision of an idealized Etruscan existence, where work, sport, and the pleasures of the natural world coexist with an underlying sense of spiritual continuity.

The composition is notable for its sense of movement and rhythm, as figures and animals are arranged in continuous, flowing sequences that suggest both narrative and ritual significance. Bright ochres, reds, and blues bring the scenes to life, while careful attention to proportion and perspective conveys depth and realism unusual for the period. Beyond their aesthetic appeal, the frescoes offer a profound insight into Etruscan conceptions of the afterlife, suggesting a vision in which the pleasures and activities of earthly existence continue beyond death, making the tomb not only a funerary monument but also a celebration of life itself.

For a Student Activity inspired by the frescoes in the Antechamber of the Tomb of Hunting and Fishing, please… Check HERE!

Bibliography: Abundance of Life: Etruscan Wall Painting, by Stephan Steingräber https://books.google.gr/books?id=K25ydBTGhbkC&pg=PA95&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false and Anni 1880: Tomba della Caccia e Pesca e Tomba degli Auguri https://journals.openedition.org/mefra/8455

Head of Aphrodite of the Aspremont-Lynden/Arles type

September 22, 2025

by admin Ancient Greek Art Archaeology Art Byzantium Early Christian Art Education Greek Art Roman Art Sculpture Social Studies Student Activities Worksheets

**Head of Aphrodite of the Aspremont-Lynden/Arles type**, 1st c. AD copy of an original 4^th century BC work by Praxiteles, Marble, possibly Parian (Marathi), Height: 32 cm, National Archaeological Museum, Athens, Greece
https://blogs.getty.edu/iris/the-christian-empire-that-grew-from-classical-roots/

The Head of Aphrodite of the Aspremont-Lynden/Arles type, housed in the National Archaeological Museum in Athens, offers a compelling glimpse into the classical ideals of beauty and divinity shaped by the legacy of Praxiteles. As a copy of a lost 4th-century BC original, possibly the first known depiction of Aphrodite with a nude upper body, this sculptural type reflects the evolving representation of the goddess, bridging the serene sensuality of the Aphrodite of Knidos with the more voluptuous forms of later works like the Aphrodite of Melos. The surviving head, now divorced from its torso, carries echoes of a refined, yet idealized femininity that would influence Roman and Renaissance aesthetics alike. Its later restoration by François Girardon, under the patronage of Louis XIV, introduced symbolic elements like the mirror and apple, both deeply charged with mythological meaning, underscoring not just Aphrodite’s divine allure, but also the enduring power of classical art to adapt to new cultural narratives. An incised cross on her forehead, likely added in the early Christian era, marks a moment when pagan imagery was recontextualized within a new religious worldview.

Carved from Parian marble, the Head of Aphrodite once belonged to an over-life-size statue of a clothed Aphrodite, though some scholars have suggested it may instead portray the famed courtesan Phryne due to its individualized features. The face, turned slightly to the right, is serene and harmonious, with soft, fleshy contours and delicately incised features: a smooth triangular forehead framed by parted curls, a broad nose (now broken), full lips, and a rounded chin. A thick bun gathers the hair at the nape, secured by a wide band. The eyes, beneath gently curved brows, show signs of deliberate Christian-era defacement, likely part of an effort to “close” the eyes and “silence” the mouth. A small, incised cross on the forehead reinforces this reinterpretation of pagan art within a Christian context, suggesting the statue may have been reused as a sacred image. Despite the damage, most notably to the nose and facial extremities, the head remains in relatively good condition and serves as a compelling testament to both the endurance of classical ideals and their transformation in later religious and cultural landscapes.

The statue’s discovery near the Clock of Andronikos Kyrrhestes in the Roman Agora of Athens further grounds it in the layered urban fabric of ancient Athens, where temples, markets, and later churches coexisted and often repurposed one another’s remains. This setting, close to the sanctuary of Aphrodite and Eros on the north slope of the Acropolis, reinforces the likelihood that the statue originally served a votive or cultic function. The artistic style—marked by its naturalistic modeling, graceful asymmetry, and subtle anatomical details like the “Venus rings” on the neck—embodies the Praxitelian ideal of ethereal beauty softened by human warmth. In this way, the head is not only a remnant of a once-complete devotional image but also a rare survivor of artistic transitions: from Classical to Hellenistic, pagan to Christian, and ultimately, from sacred object to museum artifact.

For a Student Activity, please… Check HERE

Bibliography: https://blogs.getty.edu/iris/the-christian-empire-that-grew-from-classical-roots/ and https://collections.louvre.fr/en/ark:/53355/cl010277986

Kylix with a School Boy

September 10, 2025

by admin Ancient Greek Art Archaeology Art Greek Art Pottery Social Studies Student Activities Worksheets

**Terracotta kylix (drinking cup),** Attributed to the Painter of Munich 2660, ca. 460 BC, Terracotta, Red Figure, 7×20 cm, the MET, NY, USA https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/250548

On September 11, as Greek students step into classrooms to begin the 2025–26 academic year, it feels fitting to look back, far back, to what might have been another ‘first day of school’ in antiquity. The Kylix with a School Boy, attributed to the Painter of Munich 2660 and now housed at The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, portrays a young boy carrying his writing tablet. More than two millennia later, his composed walk to class still speaks to a timeless truth: the anticipation, curiosity, and quiet rituals of learning are as old as civilization itself.

The Terracotta Kylix with Schoolboys, attributed to the Painter of Munich 2660 by Beazley, an unknown Greek red-figure painter of the early Classical period, offers a vivid glimpse into the routines and playfulness of ancient education. On the interior, a single schoolboy walks purposefully, carrying a hinged writing tablet by its handle, the tying string carefully rendered by the artist. Dressed in a himation and crowned with a wreath, he embodies the dignity of the student role, yet also the ritualized formality of Athenian youth. The precision in depicting the tablet’s details reminds us of the centrality of writing and record-keeping in Greek learning, even in the mid-5th century BC.

The exterior scenes expand the narrative into small, lively vignettes. On one side, two boys, one holding a manuscript roll, the other a tablet, approach a seated “teacher” grasping a stick, who appears identical in age and attire to his pupils, hinting that this may be a game of role reversal. On the other, a standing ‘teacher’ offers a short branch, perhaps a symbolic prize, to the head of the class, while another boy waits patiently with his walking stick. Mantles and wreaths adorn all the figures, blurring distinctions between play and instruction. In both scenes, the kylix captures not only the tools and gestures of ancient schooling but also the social interplay, imitation, and camaraderie that have always been part of the learning experience.

The Metropolitan Museum Kylix with Schoolboys reflects an aesthetic of modest charm rather than meticulous precision. Its scenes, while simply composed, convey a quiet narrative warmth: the boys, neatly draped in their himatia and crowned with wreaths, are rendered as polite, attentive pupils, slightly awed by their teacher. The painter, a successor to the tradition of Douris, specialized in cups showing boys and youths in calm, restrained poses, pleasing works that may lack distinction but exude an approachable grace. Characteristic details mark his hand: the small dot of the iris that often touches neither eyelid, the gentle downward curve of the mouth, the short, rhythmic strokes shaping the hair around face and neck, the continuous line defining the fingertips, and the single sweeping curve for the ankle. Though not executed with the highest refinement, the kylix’s aesthetic lies in its unpretentious storytelling, making it a quietly endearing example of early Classical vase painting.

For a Student Activity inspired by the Metropolitan Museum of Art Kylix, please… Check HERE!

Bibliography: Red-Figured Athenian Vases in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Vol. 1 and 2, by Gisela M. A. Richter, Pages: 136-137 https://books.google.gr/books?id=M85NBgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false and https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/250548

The Elderly Couple from Voltera

August 11, 2025

by admin Archaeology Art Etruscan Art Museums Sculpture Social Studies Student Activities Worksheets

**Etruscan Urn of an Elderly Couple,** 1^st century BC, Terracotta, Museo Etrusco Guarnacci, Volterra, Italy – Photo Credit: Amalia Spiliakou, April 2025

Among the most evocative remnants of Etruscan funerary culture are the terracotta urns that once housed the ashes of the deceased, vessels not only of the body but of memory and identity. Urns featuring reclining couples engaged in a perpetual banquet scene offer a powerful glimpse into Etruscan beliefs about death and the afterlife. These intimate portrayals, often found in burial contexts, reflect a society that viewed death not as an end but as a continuation of life’s pleasures and social bonds. The Elderly Couple from Volterra, a remarkable terracotta lid housed in the Voltera Museo Etrusco Guarnacci, stands as a moving example of this tradition. Depicting a serene, aging pair side by side in eternal repose, the work speaks volumes about affection, legacy, and the Etruscan celebration of human connection beyond the grave.

I visited the Museo Etrusco Guarnacci in April 2025, drawn by its reputation as one of the oldest public museums in Europe, and I was not disappointed. The museum holds a quiet, contemplative atmosphere that feels perfectly suited to its long history and the ancient civilization it celebrates. Housed in the elegant Palazzo Desideri-Tangassi since 1877, the museum is the result of the extraordinary efforts of Mario Guarnacci, an 18th-century Volterran abbot and historian whose passion for antiquity helped preserve the city’s rich Etruscan heritage. Guarnacci’s vision was unusually forward-thinking: he not only amassed a remarkable collection but donated it to the public, ensuring that Volterra’s archaeological treasures remained in local hands and accessible to future generations.

Walking through the galleries, I was struck by the contrast between the museum’s two “souls.” Some rooms retain their 19th-century atmosphere, where rows of urns and shelves of artifacts sit densely arranged according to material or motif, reflecting a historical approach to display. Other sections have been redesigned to offer a modern, more interpretive experience, with carefully selected pieces presented along a chronological path that brings the Etruscan story into clearer focus. The upper floor, dedicated to Hellenistic Volterra, captures the artistic and cultural vitality of the city just before its integration into the Roman world, while the ground floor offers an elegant introduction to its earlier phases, from Villanovan to Classical.

What makes the Museo Guarnacci so special is how naturally it fits within the fabric of Volterra itself. This is a city where history isn’t hidden behind glass, it’s embedded in its walls, streets, and rhythm of life. The museum doesn’t just preserve Etruscan culture, it reinforces the living dialogue between past and present that defines Volterra’s character. Its locally sourced collection, displayed in a building that reflects layers of the city’s own evolution, makes the museum feel less like a separate institution and more like a thoughtful extension of the city’s identity. Visiting it was not just an exploration of ancient artifacts, but of the cultural values that continue to shape Volterra today.

The lid of the so-called Urn of the Elderly Spouses, now one of the most iconic pieces in the Museo Etrusco Guarnacci in Volterra, offers a rare and moving glimpse into Etruscan funerary art. Discovered in 1743 in a chamber tomb at the Ulimeto necropolis, the 41 cm in height terracotta piece, depicts an elderly married couple reclining together on a banquet couch, a klinai, a motif deeply rooted in Etruscan traditions of commemorating the dead as participants in eternal feasting. Intriguingly, both hollow figures feature large openings at the top of their heads, possibly designed for the insertion of ashes, raising the possibility that this piece served not merely as a lid but as the urn itself. The male figure rests in a semi-recumbent pose, while the woman, unusually, lies prone and raises her face toward him, her missing forearm suggesting she may once have been shown in a tender, caressing gesture. Both are dressed in tunics and cloaks, with the woman’s garment sleeveless, and the sculptor emphasized signs of age, wrinkles, sagging cheeks, thinning hair, imbuing the scene with poignant realism. Likely commissioned in the 1st century BC, the work draws on older iconography to evoke dignity, memory, and shared legacy.

Aesthetically, the urn stands apart for its expressive force and quiet originality. Unlike the more standardized examples of Etruscan cinerary sculpture, this piece refuses idealization in favor of a strikingly human portrayal of aging bodies and enduring companionship. The deeply etched facial features, furrowed brows, veined hands, softened flesh, reflect not only technical skill but also a sensitive awareness of the passage of time. Yet, scholars suggest that despite this vivid realism, the work was not intended as a literal portrait of a known Volterran couple. Instead, it follows a stylistic convention of the period: a generalized “type” marked by apparent naturalism, crafted to evoke emotional resonance rather than exact likeness. The result is a powerful blend of personal and symbolic, an image of love, memory, and the continuity of human bonds beyond death. Set within the museum’s broader collection, the Urn of the Elderly Spouses captures the spirit of Etruscan funerary belief while offering a universal meditation on age, intimacy, and the desire to be remembered together.

For a Student Activity, inspired by the Voltera Urn, please… Check HERE!

Bibliography: https://volterratur.it/en/poi/guarnacci-etruscan-museum/ and https://www.facebook.com/groups/archeologyandcivilizations/posts/9143041642455945/

Patriarch Joseph II of Constantinople

July 20, 2025

by admin 15th century Art Art Byzantium Italian Renaissance Art Renaissance Renaissance Art Social Studies Student Activities Worksheets

**Tomb of Joseph II Patriarch of Constantinople**, Florentine sculptor, 1440, Santa Maria Novella, Florence
**Painted Portrait of Patriarch Joseph II of Constantinople**, 1590-92, Santa Maria Novella, Florence, Italy
Photo credit: Amalia Spiliakou, April 2025

Patriarch Joseph II of Constantinople was a pivotal figure in the history of the Eastern Orthodox Church, most notably for his participation in the Council of Ferrara-Florence (1438–1439), a major attempt to reconcile the long-standing schism between the Eastern and Western Christian churches. As the spiritual leader of the Eastern delegation, he played a crucial role in the theological dialogues aimed at achieving ecclesiastical unity. Though the union was short-lived, his involvement marked a significant moment of engagement between East and West. Patriarch Joseph II passed away during the council in Florence in 1439, and fittingly, his tomb remains in the Dominican church of Santa Maria Novella, an enduring symbol of his commitment to bridging divided faiths.

Born around 1360, likely in Constantinople, he was of noble origin and possibly related, on his father’s side, to the Bulgarian royal family. Before rising to the patriarchate, Joseph became a monk on Mount Athos and later served as the Metropolitan of Ephesus. In 1416, he was elected Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, leading the Orthodox Church during a time of both spiritual and geopolitical crisis as the Byzantine Empire faced increasing pressure from the advancing Ottoman Turks.

A staunch supporter of church unity, Joseph II was a central participant in the Council of Ferrara-Florence (1438–1445), convened to heal the East-West Schism between the Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches. His delegation sought Western military aid in exchange for theological concessions, a strategy driven by the empire’s desperate political situation. Despite his ill health, Joseph played a vital role in the negotiations, advocating dialogue and reconciliation. He died in Florence on June 10, 1439, before the council concluded, and was buried with honor in the church of Santa Maria Novella. His tomb remains there today, a rare and poignant symbol of his commitment to Christian unity and the enduring legacy of his leadership in a time of upheaval.

Although no literary or theological works by Patriarch Joseph II of Constantinople are known to have survived, his contemporaries spoke highly of his intellect and character. Ambrogio Traversari, in a letter dated February 20, 1438, praised him as venerable, so refined, with common sense, experience in life, and added, in my judgment, I think that today one could not find his like in all of Greece [Byzantium], noting that their conversation and the patriarch’s demeanor arouses respect. In Personalities of the Council of Florence, and Other Essays, Joseph Gill echoes this view, portraying Joseph II as a spiritually and intellectually vibrant leader despite his old age and deteriorating health. Nearly eight years old and suffering from heart disease, the Patriarch nonetheless demonstrated keen insight, prudent judgment, and steadfast dedication to the cause of church union until his death in Florence, shortly before the council concluded.

The Tomb of Patriarch Joseph II of Constantinople in the church of Santa Maria Novella, Florence, is a striking monument that reflects both historical reverence and artistic devotion. Created by a Florentine sculptor around 1440, the tomb commemorates the Eastern Patriarch who died in Florence during the Council of Florence, a major attempt at reunifying the Eastern and Western Churches. A later painted portrait (1590–92) complements the sculptural work, offering a vivid image of the patriarch. Ambrogio Traversari, a key figure in the council and admirer of Joseph II, described him with deep respect… The father is old, and, like his age, his grey hair, long beard and face make him a venerable figure to all who see him. This description is poignantly echoed in both the tomb and the painting, which together convey the spiritual dignity and serene wisdom of a man who symbolized unity and holiness at a crucial moment in church history. https://www.scribd.com/document/688389117/GILL-J-Personalities-of-the-Council-of-Florence-Joseph-II

For a Student Activity, please… Check HERE!

Amarna Canopic Jar

February 13, 2025

by admin Archaeology Art Egypt Egyptian Art Social Studies Student Activities Worksheets

**Canopic Jar with a Lid Depicting a Queen,** New Kingdom, Amarna Period, Dynasty 18, reign of Akhenaten, ca. 1349–1330 BC, from Upper Egypt, Valley of the Kings, Tomb KV 55, Travertine (Egyptian alabaster), blue glass, obsidian, unidentified stone, Height of Jar and Lid: 53.2 cm, the MET, NY, USA https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/544689

The Amarna Canopic Jar presented here, created for a funerary purpose, bears a lid adorned with a face so exquisitely detailed that it showcases the skill of a master artist, as if it were a public portrait. The youthful features—marked by a long, slender nose, almond-shaped eyes, and a delicately sculpted mouth—reflect an idealized image intended to endure in the eternal afterlife, regardless of the owner’s true age at death. Stylistically, the jar aligns with the artistic innovations of Akhenaten’s later reign, a period defined by the relocation of the royal court to Amarna. Yet, the mystery lingers: alterations made to the jar and lid in antiquity obscure the identity of the original owner. Who is she? The question haunts this artifact, a silent testament to both artistic mastery and the enigmatic nature of its history.

The enigmatic Canopic Jar, discovered in 1907, offers a fascinating glimpse into the royal intrigues of Akhenaten’s court, its ownership shrouded in layers of mystery and historical debate. Was it created for Queen Tiye, the formidable matriarch of the Amarna dynasty? Or perhaps Queen Nefertiti, renowned for her beauty and influence? Some have speculated it belonged to Queen Kiya, Akhenaten’s favored secondary wife, whose identity is subtly suggested by faint traces of hieroglyphs and the distinctive Nubian wig. Others propose Princess Merytaten, Akhenaten’s eldest daughter and later consort. For a time, even Akhenaten himself was considered a possibility. This confusion underscores the complex dynamics of the royal family, whose intertwined stories continue to captivate and confound modern scholars.

Whoever the original owner portrayed on the lid of the Canopic Jar in the MET was, she is undoubtedly a striking representation of one of the royal women of Amarna, embodying the elegance and refinement characteristic of this unique artistic period. Her features, including a long, slender nose, almond-shaped eyes, and a sensuous mouth, reflect the naturalistic yet idealized aesthetic that defined Amarna art. She wears the Nubian wig, a hairstyle of overlapping curls reserved for adults and favored by Akhenaten’s female relatives, emphasizing her status and maturity. At the center of her forehead, a hole marks the original placement of a separately carved rearing cobra, or uraeus, whose tail elegantly curves across the top of the wig. This royal insignia, exclusively worn by kings and queens, reinforces her elevated position within the court. The fusion of idealized beauty with symbolic details like the uraeus and the wig encapsulates the distinctive style and symbolic language of the Amarna period.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art Canopic Jar was discovered in 1907 within Tomb KV55 in the Valley of the Kings, one of Egypt’s most enigmatic burial sites. This tomb contained a mixture of funerary artifacts, including items inscribed for Queen Tiye, magical bricks bearing Akhenaten’s name, and four canopic jars, among them, the one in question, alongside a wooden coffin likely crafted for Kiya. It is believed that, to protect these items, Tutankhamun ordered their transfer from Akhenaten’s plundered Amarna tomb to Thebes. Subsequently, Kiya’s jars, and coffin may have been repurposed for another royal family member’s burial.

Tomb KV55’s entrance is cut into the floor of the main valley between the resthouse and the tomb of Rameses IX (KV 6). The tomb comprises an entryway followed by a single corridor leading directly into the burial chamber and its side chamber. Marks on the walls indicate that, after the entrance and stairs were cut, the entrance was enlarged, the ceiling raised, and the number of stairs increased.

The tomb’s discovery and the subsequent analysis of its contents have provided significant insights into the complex burial practices and political dynamics of the late 18th Dynasty, particularly concerning the Amarna period and its aftermath. The relocation and reuse of funerary equipment highlight the period’s turbulent transitions and the efforts to preserve royal legacies amid shifting religious and political landscapes.

For a Student Activity, titled ‘Guardians of the Afterlife – Understanding the Role and Use of Egyptian Canopic Jars’ inspired by the Amarna period Canopic Jar in the MET, please… Check HERE!

Bibliography: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/544689 and https://thebanmappingproject.com/tombs/kv-55-tiye-or-akhenaten

The Figure of Eight Shield

January 22, 2025

by admin Ancient Greek Art Archaeology Art Bronze Age Art Education Greek Art Mycenaean Art Powerpoints Social Studies

**Wall painting depicting the Figure of Eight Shield**,
Fresco from the Cult Center of the Acropolis
of Mycenae, 1250-1180 BC, National Archaeological Museum
of Athens, Greece https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mycenaean_mural_
depicting_a_shield_at_the_National_Archaeological_Museum_of_Athens_on_October_26,_2021.jpg

The Figure of Eight Shield is a distinctive type of shield originating in the Aegean region, particularly prominent during the Late Bronze Age. Its unique design, resembling the number ‘8’, featured a curving outline that provided comprehensive protection while allowing for ease of movement. Typically constructed from a wooden frame, it was reinforced with layers of leather or metal to enhance durability and resistance in combat. This shield is closely associated with the warrior culture of Mycenaean Greece and is frequently depicted in frescoes and artifacts from that period, symbolizing both practicality and status in the martial practices of the time.

Let me present you with ’10 Facts’ about the amazing Figure of Eight Mycenaean Shields!

Unique Shape: The ‘Figure of Eight’ shield was shaped like two large, connected ovals, creating a narrow waist-like middle. This design not only made it visually distinctive but also allowed for a balance between size and ease of handling.

Large Size: These shields were massive, often covering a soldier from head to toe, providing extensive body protection. Their size was advantageous in phalanx formations or defensive stances but made them cumbersome in fast, mobile combat.

Construction Materials: The construction of the ‘Figure of Eight’ shields reflects the technological ingenuity of the Mycenaeans. The core of the shield was typically a wooden frame, chosen for its balance of strength and lightness, allowing the shield to remain functional despite its large size. The wooden frame was then covered with multiple layers of tightly stretched cowhide, often up to several layers thick, which added durability and the ability to absorb impact from weapons like spears and arrows. To further enhance their strength, some shields were reinforced with bronze fittings or edging. These metal elements made the shields more resistant to slashing or piercing blows, ensuring they could withstand the demands of battle. Additionally, the cowhide was sometimes treated with oils or other substances to make it more durable and less susceptible to wear from environmental factors like moisture. These materials worked in harmony to produce a shield that was both protective and flexible, suited for the needs of Mycenaean warriors in close combat or defensive formations.

**Mycenaean warrior, complete with Boar’s Tusk Helmet and the Figure of Eight Shield,** ca. 13th Century BC, Ivory, Archaeological Museum, Delos, Greece https://twitter.com/DocCrom/status/1264518112386396160
**Mycenaean Dagger Blade with Hunters attacking Lions,** c. 1,600-1,500 BC, inlaid in gold, silver and niello, National Archaeological Museum of Athens, Greece https://archeology.dalatcamping.net/the-bronze-legacy-unveiling-the-artistry-of-mycenaean-daggers/

Artistic Depictions: Artistic depictions of the ‘Figure of Eight’ shields are found in various media, including frescoes, pottery, and engraved seals, offering valuable insights into their role in Mycenaean and Minoan societies. Frescoes from palatial sites like Knossos and Tiryns often show warriors wielding these shields, emphasizing their importance in both warfare and ceremonial contexts. Seal engravings, frequently detailed and symbolic, also depict the shields, suggesting their association with elite status or divine protection. Such representations indicate that the shields were not just practical tools for defense but also symbols of power, prestige, and cultural identity in the Late Bronze Age.

Use in Warfare: The shield was designed for full-body protection, particularly in close combat or during sieges. Its large size made it especially effective against projectile weapons, though it required significant strength to wield.

Ceremonial and Symbolic Roles: These shields were likely used in rituals or as symbols of power, as seen in artistic representations. Their association with elite warriors or deities underscores their importance beyond mere battlefield use.

Origins and Chronology: The ‘Figure of Eight’ shield originated in the Late Bronze Age, around 1600 BCE, and was likely influenced by earlier Minoan designs. It fell out of use by the end of the Bronze Age as combat tactics evolved.

Flexibility and Mobility: The narrow middle of the shield allowed soldiers to maneuver it more easily despite its large size. This feature improved mobility in combat, making it versatile for both offense and defense.

Decline in Use: By the 12th century BCE, the ‘Figure of Eight’ shield was replaced by smaller, lighter designs like circular or tower shields. This change reflected the increasing importance of agility and individual mobility in warfare.

Connection to Homeric Epics: Homer’s descriptions of large shields, though generally round, may have been inspired by earlier designs like the ‘Figure of Eight.’ These shields serve as a link between Mycenaean warfare and later Greek military traditions.

For a PowerPoint on Student Activities inspired by the Mycenaean Shields, please… Check HERE!

St John the Baptist and Four Saints

January 6, 2025

by admin Art Byzantine Art Byzantine Ivories Byzantium Education Greek Art Medieval Art Social Studies Student Activities Worksheets

**St John the Baptist and Four Saints**, c. 1000 AD, Elephant ivory with traces of gilding, 23.2×13.3cm, Victoria and Albert Museum, London, UK https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:St._John_
the_Baptist_and_saints,_c._1000_CE._
Ivory_with_traces_of_gilding._From_Constantinople,_Byzantine_
Empire_%28Istanbul,_Turkey%29._Victoria_and_Albert_Museum.jpg

On the 7th of January, the Feast Day of Saint John the Baptist, the Greek Orthodox Church celebrates a significant figure in Christian tradition. His Apolytikio is a testimony to his elevated status… ‘The memory of the just is celebrated with hymns of praise, but the Lord’s testimony is sufficient for thee, O Forerunner; for thou hast proved to be truly even more venerable than the Prophets, since thou was granted to baptize in the running waters Him Whom they proclaimed.’ The Ivory Plaque of St John the Baptist and Four Saints in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London is evidence of his importance in the arts.

This Byzantine ivory plaque, housed in the Victoria and Albert Museum, presents a commanding depiction of Saint John the Baptist surrounded by four saints in a beautifully carved composition. St. John, central to the piece, gazes solemnly outward, his right hand raised in a gesture of blessing reminiscent of the iconic Christ Pantocrator. He holds a scroll, in his left hand, a symbol of prophetic wisdom. Encircling him in a design formed by an elegant tubular vine are busts of Saints Philip and Stephen above and Saints Andrew and Thomas below, creating a balanced visual symmetry.

The surface between these circular frames is filled with intricate, pierced foliage, a testament to the Byzantine craftsman’s skill. Traces of gilding and remnants of red-tinted inscriptions hint at the plaque’s former vibrancy, once illuminated with a regal gold shine and rich colours highlighting each saint’s name. The eyes of the figures, enhanced with glass paste beads, lend a lifelike intensity, particularly in St. Philip, where the beading remains fully intact.

Despite a long crack running vertically on the left side and the loss of two leaves from the foliage, the plaque preserves its structural beauty. The back side reveals the ivory’s natural texture, with gentle wavy lines and the subtle trace of a nerve canal, adding to the piece’s authenticity and tactile connection to its organic origins. These characteristics all contribute to the plaque’s historical value, serving as a physical testament to devotion and masterful artistry from the Byzantine era.

The V&A’s ivory plaque of Saint John the Baptist, dating to around 1000 AD, emerges from a period in Byzantine history when art flourished under the Macedonian Dynasty. This era was marked by a “renaissance” of classical themes, blending ancient Greco-Roman styles with Christian iconography and meticulous, refined craftsmanship. The plaque exemplifies this revival through its carefully carved figures and balanced composition, presenting Saint John with an aura of reverence as a ‘bridge’ between the Old and New Testaments. Positioned in the center with a raised hand in benediction, Saint John echoes the imagery of Christ Pantocrator, highlighting his esteemed role as the Forerunner who baptizes Christ. His scroll symbolizes prophetic wisdom, while the saints around him—Philip, Stephen, Andrew, and Thomas—reflect the universal call to discipleship, with inscriptions and red accents further enhancing their significance. https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O92548/st-john-the-baptist-and-plaque-unknown/

The original purpose of the plaque remains somewhat uncertain, though the prominence afforded to Saint John the Baptist suggests a possible connection to a religious foundation dedicated to him, such as the renowned Studios Monastery and Basilica in Constantinople. This celebrated institution, a major center of Byzantine monastic life, may have housed objects of similar significance. Following the Crusaders’ sacking of Constantinople in 1204, treasured items from such sites often made their way westward, making it plausible that this plaque was preserved as a valued relic in Europe. Through its symbolism and fine craftsmanship, the plaque reflects both personal devotion and the era’s dedication to spiritual legacy in Byzantine Art.

According to experts at the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Byzantine plaque has been stylistically linked to ivory panels on a casket now housed in the Bargello Museum in Florence, which also features half-length depictions of Saints John the Baptist, Philip, Andrew, and Thomas. This connection suggests a shared artistic tradition, reflecting how Byzantine craftsmen used similar motifs and compositions to emphasize the saints’ roles. While my search for a photo and further information on the Bargello casket has been challenging, I hope to view this piece in person during my upcoming visit to the Bargello in the spring! Seeing it firsthand will be invaluable for understanding its stylistic parallels with the V&A plaque. https://www.theflorentine.net/2021/05/04/bargello-museum-reopens-with-refurbished-sala-degli-avori/

For a Student Activity, please… Check HERE!