The Cave of Altamira

Cave of Altamira, Paleolithic Cave Art, Santillana del Mar, Cantabria, SpainScientists believe the paintings date from c. 14,820 to 13,130 years ago
The original Cave of Altamira is closed to the public, but a Replica Cave and Museum were built nearby in 2001 by Manuel Franquelo and Sven Nebel, faithfully reproducing the Cave and its Art.
Photo Credit: Mariola Salceda

Nestled in the verdant landscapes of northern Spain, The Cave of Altamira stands as a testament to the artistic prowess and ingenuity of our prehistoric ancestors. This remarkable archaeological site often hailed as the “Sistine Chapel of Prehistoric Art,” offers a captivating glimpse into the lives and minds of the people who roamed the Earth over 20,000 years ago.

Discovered in the late 19th century, the cave’s walls are adorned with stunning depictions of bison, deer, horses, and other animals, rendered in vivid hues of red, black, and ochre. These paintings are not merely decorative, they are believed to hold significant cultural and possibly spiritual meaning for the Upper Paleolithic societies that created them.

The Cave of Altamira’s discovery is a tale of serendipity, curiosity, and a bit of luck, intertwining the lives of a local landowner and his inquisitive daughter. In 1868, Modesto Cubillas, a hunter from the Cantabrian region of Spain, stumbled upon the entrance to a cave on the estate of Marcelino Sanz de Sautuola. Though Cubillas mentioned the cave to Sautuola, it wasn’t until a decade later that its true significance was unveiled. Marcelino Sanz de Sautuola, an amateur archaeologist and nobleman with a keen interest in natural history, began exploring the cave in 1875. Initially, he found nothing more than a few animal bones and flint tools, which piqued his interest but did not hint at the artistic treasure that lay within.

The breakthrough came in 1879 when Sautuola returned to the cave with his eight-year-old daughter, María. As the story goes, while her father was busy examining the cave floor, young María wandered off and looked up at the ceiling. She was the first to notice the vivid paintings of bison, which she excitedly called to her father’s attention, describing them as “painted bulls.” Sautuola was astounded by the discovery and immediately recognized the importance of the paintings. He published his findings in 1880, suggesting that the artwork was prehistoric. However, his claims were met with scepticism and ridicule by the scientific community, which doubted the authenticity of such sophisticated art being so ancient. It wasn’t until the early 20th century when other similar cave paintings were discovered across Europe, that the significance of Altamira was universally acknowledged, and the cave received the recognition it deserved.

The art discovered in the Cave of Altamira is a breathtaking collection of Paleolithic paintings and engravings, primarily featuring vivid depictions of animals such as bison, deer, horses, and wild boars. These images, rendered in red, black, and ochre pigments, showcase a remarkable understanding of perspective, movement, and naturalism, with many of the figures appearing lifelike and dynamic. The cave’s ceiling is particularly famous for its polychrome bison, which seem to leap off the rock surface, demonstrating the prehistoric artists’ advanced skill and creativity. This extraordinary art provides a profound insight into the lives, beliefs, and artistic achievements of our ancient ancestors.

In addition to its iconic animal depictions, the Cave of Altamira features non-iconic art that includes abstract shapes and handprints, adding to the cave’s enigmatic and culturally rich tapestry, and offering a different perspective on prehistoric expression. The handprints, created by placing hands against the cave wall and blowing pigment around them, result in striking negative images that convey a direct human presence from millennia ago. These stencilled hands, along with various geometric patterns and symbolic marks, suggest a complex cultural and possibly ritualistic significance. This non-iconic art complements the more detailed animal figures, highlighting the multifaceted nature of the early human artistic endeavour and providing deeper insights into the cognitive and social practices of the Upper Paleolithic inhabitants.

Today, the Cave of Altamira is celebrated as a cornerstone in the study of prehistoric art, offering invaluable insights into the creativity and cultural practices of our distant ancestors. The tale of its discovery remains a fascinating chapter in the annals of archaeology, underscoring the importance of open-mindedness and the unexpected contributions of youthful curiosity.

On the 15th of May, I was fortunate to visit The Replica Cave and Museum of Altamira with my ‘Art Group’ friends and my colleague and dear friend Mariola Salceda from the University of Saragoza… It was truly a once-in-a-lifetime experience, a convergence of history, art, and friendship that left me utterly speechless. It was a journey through time, a profound encounter with humanity’s earliest expressions of creativity, and a moment I shall cherish forever.

For the PowerPoint on Paleolithic Cave Art in Spain, please… Check HERE!

Bibliography: https://www.cultura.gob.es/mnaltamira/en/home.html and https://www.bradshawfoundation.com/spain/altamira/index.php and https://artsandculture.google.com/story/ZAVhI3eo6sPyJA

The Dolphin Frieze from the Mycenaean Acropolis of Gla

Dolphin Frieze, Second half of the 13th century BC, Fresco, from the Mycenaean Acropolis of Gla in Boeotia, Archaeological Museum of Thebes, Greece – Photo Credit: Amalia Spiliakou, February 19, 2024

On February 19, 2024, I fulfilled a long-awaited wish by visiting the Archaeological Museum of Thebes, one of Greece’s most significant archaeological museums. The collections, some of which are rare or unique, have been on my bucket list for quite some time. These artefacts, originating from excavations across Boeotia, span from the Paleolithic era to post-Byzantine times, providing a comprehensive view of the region’s cultural history. The Dolphin Frieze from the Mycenaean Acropolis of Gla was at the top of my list; seeing it in person was a moment of sheer delight and fulfilment.

The Mycenaean period is of profound significance in both art and history, acting as a vital cultural link between the Bronze Age civilizations of the Aegean and the classical world of ancient Greece. Artefacts from this era, ranging from architecture to fresco painting and pottery, illuminate the emergence of distinct artistic styles and techniques that greatly influenced classical Greek artistry. Mycenaean builders demonstrated their prowess through the construction of grand palaces, robust fortifications, and imposing tombs, showcasing advanced architectural and engineering capabilities. Their vibrant fresco paintings, characterized by bold depictions of figures, animals, and geometric patterns, stand as a testament to their artistic abilities. Moreover, the Mycenaean civilization played a pivotal role in shaping the socio-political landscape of ancient Greece, laying the groundwork for the development of Greek culture and identity.

Model of the Archaeological site of Gla, Archaeological Museum of Thebes, Greece
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gla_-_Modell_of_archaeological_site.JPG

The least known of all Mycenaean Palaces is probably that of Gla in Central Greece. Perched atop a rugged hill, the Mycenaean Acropolis of Gla is a site of historical and archaeological significance dating back to the Late Bronze Age. This fortified settlement, strategically positioned on the Boeotian plain jutted into Lake Kopais (now drained) or formed an island within it. It served as a vital center of the Mycenaean civilization, showcasing the architectural prowess and strategic foresight of its ancient inhabitants. With its imposing Cyclopean Walls, about 3 m thick, and 2.8 km long, enclosing about 235,000 square meters of land, and commanding views, the Acropolis of Gla stands as a testament to the military and cultural achievements of the Mycenaeans, offering invaluable insights into their society, economy, and interactions within the broader Aegean world.

The Acropolis of Gla is famously associated with the ambitious endeavour to drain Lake Kopais, a feat considered unparalleled in Bronze Age antiquity, highlighting the advanced technical knowledge possessed by Mycenaean engineers. It is also known for its sheer magnitude and complexity. Encircled by robust Cyclopean Walls featuring four gates constructed from imposing stone blocks, Gla reigns as the largest fortified Mycenaean Acropolis within Greek territory. Less known, but equally important is the site’s residential area, a sprawling L-shaped edifice, often hailed as a ‘Palace’, and situated in the site’s northern expanse. Built atop an engineered plateau, this ‘Palace’ or, Melathron’, unfolds into three distinct sections, featuring a layout reminiscent of the renowned Megaron structures found in ancient centers like Tiryns, Mycenae, and Pylos. However, the absence of hallmark Mycenaean Palace elements, specifically a “throne room”, a circular hearth, and a “bathroom”, raises questions about its classification as a fully-fledged Mycenaean Megaron.

Among the buildings’ debris, archaeologists discovered as early as 1893, evidence of a wastewater system, unique clay roof tiles suggesting pitched roofs, and evidence of decorative wall frescoes, damaged and fragmentary, but extremely precious. Today, these fragments, discovered in the elongated East Wing of the South Enclosure, during excavations conducted by S. Iakovidis, in the early 1980s and 1990s are exhibited in the Archaeological Museum of Thebes. The most remarkable of these fragments show diving Dolphins and parts of other maritime scenes, including large Argonauts. These fresco fragments were expertly reconstructed by Christos Boulotis. (See Bibliography)

Dolphin Frieze, Second half of the 13th century BC, Fresco, from the Mycenaean Acropolis of Gla in Boeotia, Archaeological Museum of Thebes, Greece – Photo Credit: Amalia Spiliakou, February 19, 2024

The Dolphin Fresco from the Mycenaean Acropolis of Gla is a remarkable artefact that showcases an unusual naturalism and a sophisticated understanding of marine life, captured through the depiction of Dolphins with an astonishing level of detail and realism. These elegant creatures, spanning 75 to 80 cm in height, are painted against a vivid blue background, highlighting their dynamic forms and graceful postures. The Dolphins, numbering between six and seven, are depicted in a uniform size and posture, their bodies elegantly curved into open arches or crescents, embodying the fluidity and grace of living dolphins. Their upper bodies are painted black, featuring a triangular dorsal fin, while their bellies are a contrasting white, delineated from the black with yellow stripes. Their eyes are almond-shaped, set against a yellow background, adding a striking detail to their overall appearance.

The use of colours in the Gla Dolphins fresco draws closer to the real hues of these marine creatures, with the black, white, and yellow providing a stark contrast to the deep blue sea they inhabit. This colour choice not only enhances the naturalism of the scene but also demonstrates the Mycenaeans’ advanced skills in pigment selection and application. Indeed, recent analyses have revealed the use of rare, imported lapis lazuli mixed with hematite and possibly an organic colour derived from murex, underscoring the significant effort and resources devoted to achieving the fresco’s vibrant colours.

This fresco, along with other Dolphin Paintings of the Aegean Bronze Age period demonstrates a persistence of themes drawn from nature within Mycenaean art, suggesting a deep-rooted appreciation for the natural world. The Gla Dolphins, with their lifelike appearance and intricate detailing, stand as a testament to the Mycenaean civilization’s artistic prowess and their enduring fascination with the sea and its inhabitants.

For a Student Activity, inspired by the Dolphin Freeze, please… Check HERE!

Bibliography: Christos Boulotis, Reconstructing a Dolphin Frieze and Argonauts from the Mycenaean Citadel of Gla, ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 72, Mycenaean Wall Painting in Context, National Hellenic Research Foundation, Athens, 2015, pp. 371… https://www.academia.edu/39148590/RECONSTRUCTING_A_DOLPHIN_FRIEZE_AND_ARGONAUTS_FROM_THE_MYCENAEAN_CITADEL_OF_GLA_In_MYCENAEAN_WALL_PAINTING_IN_CONTEXT_ATHENS_2015_371_403

Eros Punished

Eros Punished, 1st century AD, Fresco, 126×162.3 cm, from the House of Punished Eros in Pompeii, National Archaeological Museum of Naples, Italy – Photo Credit: Amalia Spiliakou, February 18, 2024, ‘Meanings’. Personifications and Allegories from Antiquity to Today Exhibition, Acropolis Museum, Athens, Greece

On February 17, 2024, in Athens, attending an exceptional exhibition, titled ‘NοΗΜΑΤΑ’: Personifications and Allegories from Antiquity to Today, held at the Acropolis Museum, I came face to face with an adorable Pompeiian fresco titled Eros Punished. It is now part of the Museo Archaeologico Nazionale di Napoli, but back in the 1st century AD, adorned the wall of a triclinium in the House of Love Punished in Pompeii.

The fresco’s narrative unfolds amidst the timeless strokes of fine ancient artistry. Peithò, (Persuasion Personified), leads Eros to his mother Aphrodite, terribly crossed with him, for an impending punishment. Eros used his arrows to kindle Ares’s passion for another woman, and Aphrodite is unwilling to forgive such mischief. Peithò, Persuasion personified, affectionately holds Eros’s hand, who bearing the weight of his misdeed, seems like crying, hesitant to proceed. Aphrodite, seated regally upon a rugged perch, emanates an aura of solemnity. She holds Eros’s bow and cuirass and looks at him sadly, but firmly. Anteros, the younger sibling of Eros, lurks behind her, poised to witness the unfolding consequence with a mixture of anticipation and childish delight. This tableau, frozen in time, capturing the intricate interplay of familial bonds, divine intervention, and the immutable consequences of love’s transgressions, delights me!

Eros Punished (detail), 1st century AD, Fresco, 126×162.3 cm, from the House of Punished Eros in Pompeii, National Archaeological Museum of Naples, Italy
https://www.planetpompeii.com/en/blog/eros-and-anteros-the-love-needs-to-be-reciprocated-to-grow.html
Eros Punished (detail), 1st century AD, Fresco, 126×162.3 cm, from the House of Punished Eros in Pompeii, National Archaeological Museum of Naples, Italy
https://www.planetpompeii.com/en/blog/eros-and-anteros-the-love-needs-to-be-reciprocated-to-grow.html

In exploring this scene, I cannot overlook the intriguing presence of God Eros and his younger brother Anteros within the same composition. The relationship between Eros and Anteros, symbolizing the two counterparts of reciprocal love, finds its vivid portrayal in a fanciful myth recounted by the fourth-century rhetorician Themistius. Through Themistius’s narrative, we glimpse into the depths of brotherly affection and the profound consequences it entails…

When Aphrodite gave birth to Eros, the child was beautiful and befitted his mother in any respect but one: he did not grow to a size appropriate to his beauty… The baby’s mother and the Graces, his nurses, did not know what to do when confronted with this situation. They went to Themis… and asked her to find some means by which they might be delivered from their strange and astonishing misfortune. Themis said: “I shall put an end to your predicament. The problem is that you do not yet know the true nature of the baby. Eros, your genuine offspring, may perhaps have been born alone but he cannot grow up in any part of the body: you need Anteros if you want Eros to grow. These brothers will have the same nature; each will be responsible for the other’s growth. For when they see each other, they will both shoot up equally; but if one of them is deprived of the other, they will both shrink in size.” And so Aphrodite conceived Anteros, and Eros immediately had a spurt of growth and sprouted wings and was tall. Since this is Eros’s fortune, he often endures strange transformations, now sprouting up, now shrinking, then growing again. He always needs his brother’s presence. If he sees that his brother is of sizable stature, he is eager to appear bigger himself; but he often shrinks in size, against his own will, once he has discovered that his brother is shrunken and small.

Eros Punished (detail), 1st century AD, Fresco, 126×162.3 cm, from the House of Punished Eros in Pompeii, National Archaeological Museum of Naples, Italy
https://www.planetpompeii.com/en/blog/eros-and-anteros-the-love-needs-to-be-reciprocated-to-grow.html

For a PowerPoint on Eros and Anteros in Art, please… Check HERE!

Bibliography on Eros and Anteros: Eros and Anteros or Reciprocal Love in Ancient and Renaissance Art by Guy de Tervarent, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, Vol. 28 (1965), pp. 205-208 p.272 https://www.jstor.org/stable/2853330?read-now=1&seq=8#page_scan_tab_contents  and Grecian and Roman mythology by Dwight, M. A. (Mary Ann), 1806-1858, p. 266 https://archive.org/details/cu31924029135651/page/n269/mode/1up and Anteros: On Friendship Between Rivals and Rivalry Between Friends p. 9 file:///C:/Users/aspil/Downloads/Post_columbia_0054D_11776.pdf

The House of the Bicentenary in Herculaneum

The Bicentenary House, the fresco of Aphrodite and Aris, 1st century AD, Tablinum, Herculaneum, Italy https://minervamagazine.com/grand-designs-at-herculaneum.html

The House of the Bicentenary in Herculaneum is one of the site’s jewels. Back in the 1930s, archaeologist Amedeo Maiuri described it as a sumptuous noble house of elegant proportions. It is one of Herculaneum’s largest townhouses, as would be expected for a property with such a prominent location on the main street of the town, close to the theatre, the law courts, and the forum. The stately 1st-century BC house was built on two storeys and its façade was decorated with a brightly coloured green-and-red chequerboard pattern, with a balcony looking over the street. Inside, a large atrium with a central marble pool led to an elegant room for receiving guests. Both were covered with lavish mosaic pavements and wall paintings, all indicating that this was a noble house that belonged at some point to prosperous owners… https://minervamagazine.com/grand-designs-at-herculaneum.html

The House of the Bicentenary is one of the best preserved noble houses at Herculaneum, with highly refined wall paintings and mosaic pavements, 1st century AD, Herculaneum, Italy https://www.getty.edu/conservation/our_projects/field_projects/herculaneum/overview.html

History of the Archaeological Site

The House of the Bicentenary was unearthed under the direction of archaeologist Amedeo Maiuri, in 1938, amidst the bicentennial celebrations of the excavations at Herculaneum. Concurrently, efforts were made to stabilize, restore, and exhibit the site, with artefacts showcased in the atrium’s left hall and a preserved wood screen displayed in the right hall. By 1983, however, the house faced severe deterioration, worsened by exposure to the elements and heavy tourist traffic. Structural instability, deteriorating wall paintings, crumbling tuffa walls, flaking paint layers, and lifting mosaics plagued the once-grand villa, necessitating urgent restoration efforts.

In a decisive move, the House underwent closure to visitors, heralding a transformative period in 2011. A collaborative effort ensued, with the participation of the Getty Conservation Institute (GCI), the Archaeological Park of Herculaneum, and the Herculaneum Conservation Project, united in a mission to comprehensively research, analyze, document, and stabilize the edifice’s architectural framework, wall surfaces, frescoes, and mosaic pavements. Particular focus was directed towards the restoration of the remarkable Tablinum area. The outcome of this concerted effort has been nothing short of remarkable. Such was the extent of the achievement that Domenico Camardo, the chief archaeologist at the Herculaneum Conservation Project, expressed the endeavour as not only a pivotal moment in the house’s preservation but also an opportunity for pioneering advancements in conservation methodologies and materials, with implications reaching far beyond the site itself. https://www.thehistoryblog.com/archives/56824

An Overview of the House of the Bicentenary…

Nestled along Herculaneum’s bustling main thoroughfare, the city’s Decumanus Maximus, the Bicentenary House once hosted Gaius Petronius Stephanus and his wife Calantonia Themis within its exquisite confines. Renowned as one of the city’s most opulent residences, sprawling across over 600 square meters and boasting an upper floor, its halls were adorned with meticulously preserved mosaic floors and frescoes breathing life into mythological narratives and intricate architectural and animal motifs. Particularly noteworthy is the Tablinum (Room 10 on the Plan), adorned with a collection of 4th Pompeian Style paintings renowned for their beauty and craftsmanship, offering visitors a glimpse into the peak of artistic expression within the site.

The Bicentenary House, 1st century AD, Tablinum, Herculaneum, Italy https://minervamagazine.com/grand-designs-at-herculaneum.html

On the Tablinum Frescoes…

The decoration of the Tablinum is superb. The room’s ensemble of wall paintings exhibits artistic and archaeological importance portraying mythological scenes, cupids in a variety of activities, and portraits of Dionysiac figures of the utmost elegance and sophistication. Finally, the unique mosaic pavement in opus sectile and opus tessellatum, creates a unique mosaic floor, blending opulent reds, yellows, and blacks in a sophisticated scheme.

The Bicentenary House, the fresco of Aphrodite and Aris with medallions of Dionysiac portraits, 1st century AD, Tablinum, fresco, Herculaneum, Italy https://minervamagazine.com/grand-designs-at-herculaneum.html

According to Amedeo Maiuri… The tablinum preserves a rich, sparkling marble pavement, like a polychrome carpet, and on the walls, paintings, medallions, and a frieze; in the panels are represented the myths of Daedalus and Pasiphae and of Venus and Mars; in the medallions are busts of Satyrs, Sileni and Maenads. On the upper part of the walls runs a frieze with cupids. From the tablinum, we reach the little portico with the garden and the rustic rooms on the ground floor. https://herculaneum.uk/Ins%205/Herculaneum%205%2015%20p3.htm

For a PowerPoint on the House of the Bicentenary, please… Check HERE!

The Bicentenary House, the fresco of Aphrodite and Aris with medallions of Dionysiac portraits, 1st century AD, Tablinum, fresco, Herculaneum, Italy https://minervamagazine.com/grand-designs-at-herculaneum.html

Darius Vase

Anonymous Apulian Vase Painter, commonly called the Darius Painter, worked between 340 and 320 BC
Darius Vase, 340-320 BC, Ceramic Red-Figure Volute Crater, Clay, Height: 1.15 m, Archaeological Museum of Naples, Italy – Photo Credit: Amalia Spiliakou, February 18, 2024, ‘Meanings’. Personifications and Allegories from Antiquity to Today Exhibition, Acropolis Museum, Athens, Greece

On February 17, 2024, during my visit to Athens, Greece, I had the pleasure of attending an exceptional exhibition titled ‘NοΗΜΑΤΑ’: Personifications and Allegories from Antiquity to Today, held at the Acropolis Museum. Curated by Professor Nikolaos Chr. Stampolidis and his associates, this exhibition forms a unique Tetralogy, wherein the Greek word ‘ΝΟΗΜΑ’ (‘Meaning’ in English) metaphorically transforms into a ‘ΝΗΜΑ’ (a ‘Thread’), weaving together diverse artworks including statues, reliefs, vases, coins, jewelry, Byzantine icons, and paintings. It marks a groundbreaking moment by uniting antiquity with Byzantium, Renaissance, and Modern Art for the first time. Among the Exhibition artworks that impressed me most was Darius Vase, a large Apulian Volute Krater from the Museo Archaeologico Nazionale di Napoli!

View of the Exhibition ‘Meanings’. Personifications and Allegories from Antiquity to Today Exhibition, Acropolis Museum, Athens, Greece
https://hellasjournal.com/2023/12/christougenna-sto-mousio-akropolis-eortastikes-ekdilosis-dora-ke-giortina-piata-sto-estiatorio-ke-to-archeo-gouri-tou-mousiou/

The Darius Vase is one such example of Apulian pottery. It dates back to the late 4th century BC, 330 to 300 BC to be specific. It was created by the so-called Darius Painter in Magna Graecia, standing as a testament to the mastery of Greek pottery during this period. This amazing Volute Krater, measuring approximately 1.15 meters in height and 1.93 meters in circumference, features intricate red-figure decoration with additional white and red paint. Its provenance traces back to the city of Taranto (ancient city of Taras), an area known for its production of fine ceramics. With its distinctive style and historical subject matter, the Darius Vase remains a vital piece for understanding both Greek artistry and the cultural exchanges between Greece and Magna Graecia during antiquity. The Darius Vase was discovered in 1851 near Canosa di Puglia and is now on display at the Museo Archaeologico Nazionale, in Naples.

Standing as a testament to the artistic finesse of ancient Greek Apulian pottery, the vase features a rich and complex iconography divided into four main zones or registers:

Top Register (Neck): The iconography of the Neck of the Darius Vase is subject to diverse interpretations. While some scholars argue that the combat scene depicted signifies the conflicts between Alexander the Great and Darius III, others propose that the scene may represent an earlier battle between Greeks and Persians or even an incident related to the Amazonomachy. Thus, the iconography of the Neck of the Darius Vase invites exploration into both historical narratives and mythological symbolism, providing a rich tapestry of cultural significance.

Anonymous Apulian Vase Painter, commonly called the Darius Painter, worked between 340 and 320 BC
Darius Vase (Detail with Hellas, Zeus and Athena), 340-320 BC, Ceramic Red-Figure Volute Crater, Clay, Height: 1.15 m, Archaeological Museum of Naples, Italy
https://twitter.com/greece_heritage/status/1688905660803805184

The Second Register (from the top): A procession of Greek deities adds depth to the iconography, rich symbolism and mythological significance, as it portrays a visual narrative that intertwines Persian and Greek cultures. Artemis, the huntress, is depicted riding a stag, symbolizing her connection to the wilderness and fertility. Seated beside her is Apollo, God of light and music, cradling a swan, representing his multifaceted domains. Zeus, the king of the gods, is presented sitting in the middle, with a sceptre in his hand, the thunderbolt beside him and a winged Victory in front of him. He turns towards a woman who, as the inscription above her head states, is Hellas personified, accompanied by Athena, goddess of wisdom and warfare, fully armoured, ready for battle. Apate, the goddess of deceit, holds aloft two torches, perhaps suggesting the duality of truth and deception. Lastly, Asia, personified as a seated figure on an altar, is depicted in front of a Hermaic Stele. The arrangement of these figures on the vase not only showcases the artistic prowess of the era but also reflects the intricate interplay between Greek and Persian mythologies, offering insights into the complexities of ancient cultural exchange.

Anonymous Apulian Vase Painter, commonly called the Darius Painter, worked between 340 and 320 BC
Darius Vase (Detail with Darius and the Messenger), 340-320 BC, Ceramic Red-Figure Volute Crater, Clay, Height: 1.15 m, Archaeological Museum of Naples, Italy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darius_Vase

The Third Register: The protagonist of the third register, is Darius, the King of Persia. He is depicted in the center of the composition, seated on a luxurious throne with a footstool, holding a scepter in his right hand and a sword in his left hand, and is identified, like other figures, by an inscription. Standing before him, on a two-tiered circular plinth that bears the inscription PERSAI, is a bearded man, arm raised with three fingers extended, clearly delivering a message to the monarch. The messenger’s countenance betrays the gravity of his news, suggesting its unwelcome nature. The remaining figures represent members of Darius’s entourage, his bodyguard for example, and his officials,  Greek and Persians alike.

Anonymous Apulian Vase Painter, commonly called the Darius Painter, worked between 340 and 320 BC
Darius Vase (Tax Collecting scene), 340-320 BC, Ceramic Red-Figure Volute Crater, Clay, Height: 1.15 m, Archaeological Museum of Naples, Italy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darius_Vase

The Bottom Fourth Register: In the Bottom Register, a robed, bearded man takes center stage, seated before a table. In his left hand, he holds a diptych tablet inscribed with numbers, indicating his role in calculation. Ψῆφοι, that is white stones utilized by ancient mathematicians for arithmetic, are scattered across the table, emphasizing his pursuits. Flanking him, two ‘Persians’ approach, one bearing a bag of currency, the other presenting golden vessels, symbolic of their tribute. Meanwhile, additional ‘Persians’ kneel in deference, extending their hands in a gesture of submission. The scene vividly illustrates the dynamics of taxation and submission, with the Greek figure diligently calculating and recording the total, while the ‘Persians’ acknowledge their obligation to pay taxes and recognize Greek authority.

Is the composition of the Darius Vase inspired by an ancient Greek theatrical Drama? One interpretation suggests that the depicted events on the Darius Vase likely correspond to Alexander the Great’s campaign in Persia. Therefore, it is inferred that the Persian king portrayed on the vase is Darius III, depicted listening to the news of the defeat of the Persian army, as conveyed by a messenger after the battle of Granicus in 334 BC. Following this battle, Alexander asserted his dominance over Asia Minor up to the Taurus Mountains. Consequently, many regions either submitted willingly or were compelled to acknowledge Alexander’s authority, leading to the imposition of tribute and the consequent enrichment of his treasury.

The iconography of the Darius Vase, like many other Apulian vases, is a treasury of symbolism and storytelling, offering profound insights into ancient Greek mythology, history, and culture through its intricate imagery and narrative compositions. It appears that the news of Alexander’s initial triumph over Darius swiftly spread across Greece, igniting fervor, and inspiring the creation of masterpieces, in the visual as well as the performing arts, that captivated audiences from Greece to Lower Italy.

Could it be that the Darius Vase itself is a product of this inspirational fervour? Crafted by one of Taranto’s most esteemed vase painters, it stands as a potential testament to the enduring influence of Alexander’s victory on the artistic landscape of Magna Graecia. As we marvel at its intricate details and ponder its narrative significance, we’re drawn into a world where history, myth, and art intertwine, inviting us to contemplate the profound impact of past events on the creative expressions of ancient civilizations.

For a PowerPoint Presentation on Apulian Pottery, please… Check HERE!

Bibliography: https://www.greek-language.gr/digitalResources/ancient_greek/history/art/page_122.html (in Greek)

The Bronze Hellenistic Dancer at the MET

Bronze statuette of a veiled and masked dancer, 3rd–2nd century BC, Bronze, 20.5 × 8.9 × 11.4 cm, the MET, NY, USA https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/255408?pkgids=351&pos=20&nextInternalLocale=en&ft=*&oid=255408&rpp=4&exhibitionId=%7Bc81fa618-19f5-47a1-a089-fd1b22309109%7D&pg=1

Dance is an ephemeral art. Is it about sentiment, imagination, and expression? Is The Bronze Hellenistic Dancer at the MET the quintessence of a Hellenistic Dancer’s soul?

The MET Dancer emerges, as if from the shadows, draped in layers of gleaming veils that conceal and reveal her movements. With each step, she gracefully twists and turns to the left, casting a downward gaze. As she dances, her left hand lifts a veil over her left hip, while her right arm, holding folds of fabric, shields the lower part of her veiled head, which arches backward. The ethereal dance causes her dress to swirl around her body, and the edges of her enveloping cloak flare out at her sides.

The complex motion of this dancer, the MET experts tell us, is conveyed exclusively through the interaction of the body with several layers of dress… This Hellenistic Bronze statuette of a Dancer not only provides insights into the cultural context of its creation but also invites speculation about the statue’s original owner. Questions arise: Where was this captivating figure displayed? What thoughts and emotions did she elicit? How much joy did she bring to those who beheld her? https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/255408?pkgids=351&pos=20&nextInternalLocale=en&ft=*&oid=255408&rpp=4&exhibitionId=%7Bc81fa618-19f5-47a1-a089-fd1b22309109%7D&pg=1

Quoting the MET experts… The bronze Dancer performs a private dance for the viewer—a kind of dance of the seven veils—that is both alluring and surprisingly contemporary in appearance, having been rendered in a realistic style. Nonetheless, it is undoubtedly very much a product of the ethos of the Hellenistic Age, the work of a master sculptor perhaps from Alexandria, Egypt… This dancer has been convincingly identified as one of the professional entertainers, a combination of mime and dancer, for which the cosmopolitan city of Alexandria was famous in antiquity… https://www.metmuseum.org/blogs/now-at-the-met/2016/pergamon and https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/255408?pkgids=351&pos=20&nextInternalLocale=en&ft=*&oid=255408&rpp=4&exhibitionId=%7Bc81fa618-19f5-47a1-a089-fd1b22309109%7D&pg=1

She is, luckily, not alone. In addition to the captivating Hellenistic Bronze statue showcased at the MET, the collection also features a charming array of clay statuettes portraying dancers.

Terracotta statuette of a Dancing Woman, 3rd century BC, Terracotta, 24.1 × 10.2 × 8.3 cm, the MET, NY, USA https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/248712
Terracotta statuette of a Dancing Woman, 3rd century BC, Terracotta, 15.2 × 6.2 × 8.6 cm, the MET, NY, USA https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/248601
Terracotta statuette of a Veiled Dancer, 3rd century BC, Terracotta, H. 20.0 cm, the MET, NY, USA https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/251216

Sculptures of dancers from this era often captured the dynamic and graceful movements of the human body, showcasing the Hellenistic fascination with naturalism and the portrayal of emotion. These sculpted dancers, whether in bronze or clay, reflected the cultural significance of dance as a form of entertainment, religious ritual, and social expression. The intricate detailing of their poses and flowing garments not only celebrated the physical prowess of the human form but also conveyed a sense of vitality and joy, providing a testament to the Hellenistic commitment to aesthetic excellence and the embodiment of life in art.

For a Student Activity on Hellenistic Dancing, please… Check HERE!

Puabi’s Tomb and Magnificent Jewels

Puabi’s Jewelry, 2600-2450 BC, Gold and semi-precious stones, Penn Museum, Philadelphia, PA, USA https://www.penn.museum/collections/object_images.php?irn=1138

Back on the 4th of January 1928, Sir Leonard Wooley wrote about Puabi’s Tomb and magnificent JewelsI found the intact tomb, stone built and vaulted over with bricks of Queen Shubad (Puabi) adorned with a dress in which gems, flowers, crowns and animal figures are woven. Tomb magnificent with jewels and golden cups…

Queen Puabi, a name that has endured over millennia, lived during the peak of Ur’s dominance around 2600 BC. This is the Early Dynastic Period of Mesopotamia, which is often referred to as the Early Bronze Age. During her era, the ancient city-state of Ur wielded considerable influence over the Sumer region, which was situated between the southern territories of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. This period witnessed a flourishing trade environment in Ur, with trade routes extending from present-day India to Sudan.

Puabi was apparently one of Ur’s most powerful Ladies…  Her name and title are known from the short inscription on one of three cylinder seals found on her person. Although most women’s cylinder seals at the time would have read “wife of ___,” this seal made no mention of her husband. Instead, it gave her name and title as queen. The two cuneiform signs that compose her name were initially read as “Shub-ad” in Sumerian. Today, however, we think they should be read in Akkadian as “Pu-abi” (or, more correctly, “Pu-album,” meaning “word of the Father”). Her title “eresh” (sometimes mistakenly read as “nin”) means “queen.” https://www.penn.museum/collections/highlights/neareast/puabi.php

This amazing Lady was immortalized through the discovery of her undisturbed Tomb in the ancient city of Ur, in present-day Iraq. Designated as PG 800, Puabi’s Tomb was excavated by British archaeologist Sir Leonard Woolley in the 1920s as part of his extensive work at the Ur archaeological site. The tomb, located in the Royal Cemetery of Ur, is one of the most famous archaeological discoveries in Mesopotamia. In the years following the discovery of Puabi’s tomb, her legacy has continued to captivate researchers and the public alike, shedding light on the fascinating history of ancient Mesopotamia.

Inside Puabi’s tomb, archaeologists found a rich collection of artifacts, including jewelry, elaborate headdresses, musical instruments, and pottery that reflect the advanced craftsmanship and culture of ancient Sumer. She was buried with great ceremony and luxury, suggesting that she held a high status in Sumerian society, possibly as a queen or priestess.

I am particularly fascinated by her ‘formal’ attire… golden, carnelian red, and lapis-lazuli blue! I can imagine her, resplendent in her jewels attending official banquets, shining under the golden light of oil lamps. What a powerful impression she must have been!

Puabi’s Jewelry, 2600-2450 BC, Gold and semi-precious stones, Penn Museum, Philadelphia, PA, USA https://www.penn.museum/collections/object_images.php?irn=1138

According to the Penn Museum experts, where a significant part of her treasure is housed… Puabi’s ornate headdress and pair of earrings were found with her body in the Royal Cemetery at Ur. The headdress is made up of 20 gold leaves, two strings of lapis and carnelian, and a large gold comb. In addition, the queen wore chokers, necklaces, and large lunate-shaped earrings. Her upper body was covered by strands of beads made of precious metals and semiprecious stones that stretched from her shoulders to her belt. Ten rings decorated her fingers. A diadem or fillet made up of thousands of small lapis lazuli beads with gold pendants depicting plants and animals was apparently on a table near her headhttps://www.penn.museum/collections/highlights/neareast/puabi.php

What an indelible and commanding presence she has left!

For a PowerPoint titled Puabi’s Tomb and Magnificent Jewels, please… Check HERE!

For the Penn Museum Video, titled Dressing Queen Puabi, please Check… https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kZngHY1nriA

Interesting articles on The Royal Tombs of Ur, Mesopotamia, New Investigations, New Results from the Examination of Metal Artifacts and other Archaeological Findshttps://www.bergbaumuseum.de/fileadmin/forschung/zeitschriften/metalla/22.1/metalla-22-1-royal-tombs-of-ur-mesopotamia-klein-hauptmann.pdf